# The Campaigns of Napoleon  ## Metadata - Author: [[David G. Chandler]] - Full Title: The Campaigns of Napoleon - Category: #napoleonic-campaigns ## Highlights - During the twenty-three-odd years of his active career, he fought no less than sixty battles. ([Location 490](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=490)) - The concepts of Liberté, Egalité et Fraternité, the dictums of Rousseau and Diderot, implied a total upheaval of the old order and liberated immense energy and proselytizing zeal among the French people. ([Location 511](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=511)) - he never entered upon wars lightly. He always advocated a relatively humane type of warfare: he desired the short, sharp, conclusive campaign, never the long, drawn-out agony of attrition for attrition’s sake. But when this goal eluded him—as it generally did from December 1806 onwards—he ([Location 547](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=547)) - Thirdly, and most detrimentally of all, his increasing obsession with the need to spread the Continental System and perfect its working played no insignificant part in inducing Napoleon to make his two cardinal errors of military and political judgment: the decision to invade Portugal and Spain in 1807–08 and the decision to attack Russia in 1812. ([Location 594](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=594)) - Napoleon possessed an almost hypnotic power over those contemporaries he met face to face. It was a combination of his iron will, his irresistible charm and the feeling of his visitors of being in the presence of a master among men. Physically he was unprepossessing—of small stature, crude and even vulgar habits, brutally outspoken on almost every occasion—and yet he could have any man or woman eating out of his hand if he so desired. ([Location 601](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=601)) - He also appears to have had a photographic memory for statistics, and many an abashed secretary of state or senior official would be treated to a full résumé of the trade figures in, say, corn, for the past five years. ([Location 637](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=637)) - he was also frequently ill—suffering from both piles and bladder trouble—and the health factor is not of inconsiderable importance in considering his showing on two critical occasions when he showed himself far from his best—namely at Borodino and Waterloo. ([Location 651](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=651)) - On occasions he would thrash servants and officers with the riding whip he habitually carried; he once kicked a minister in the stomach before calmly ringing the bell for servants to come and remove the writhing unfortunate from the floor, and he once seized poor, hardworking Berthier by the throat and hammered his head against a stone wall. Life ([Location 658](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=658)) - He enumerated three basic requirements for a successful general: concentration of force, activity and a firm resolve to perish gloriously. ([Location 674](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=674)) - First, there was the growing exhaustion of France, as resources of men and materiel rapidly dwindled as casualties mounted and the land area under Napoleon’s control progressively shrank. ([Location 757](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=757)) - The second factor was a rapid increase in the war-worthiness of Napoleon’s opponents. The old, greying generals of the first decade gave way to more dynamic leaders; after seeing their forces smashed into pieces by the marvelous war machine that was the Grande Armée in its prime, the Governments of Prussia, Austria and Russia had the sense to model their new armies after the French pattern. ([Location 762](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=762)) - Since the 1940s it has been fashionable in some quarters to compare Napoleon with Hitler. Nothing could be more degrading to the former and more flattering to the latter. The comparison is odious. On the whole Napoleon was inspired (in the early years at least) by a noble dream, wholly dissimilar from Hitler’s vaunted but stillborn “New Order.” ([Location 768](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=768)) - Above all, most of his notions on the art of war and military affairs in general were formulated during this period, and it is important to study the early influences if we are to acquire any real insight into his future greatness and ultimate fall. ([Location 846](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=846)) - Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769, at Ajaccio in Corsica, the second surviving son of Carlo and Marie-Letizia Buonaparte. ([Location 848](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=848)) - A story is told (probably apocryphal) of how Napoleon held out his hand for his mother to kiss shortly after his coronation. One version states that the spritely old dame actually slapped his face; another (less probable) that she bit his hand. ([Location 855](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=855)) - Joseph, the eldest—rather a frivolous character who took up the duties of head of the family after their father’s death in 1785 and who always received a degree of deference from his younger brother—became first King of Naples (1806) and two years later King of Spain; Louis, the fifth born, was made King of Holland (1806); Jerome, the baby of the family, was crowned King of Westphalia in 1807; and, lastly, Napoleon himself, who for good measure combined in his person the Emperor of the French and King of Italy. Only Lucien, the child born next after Napoleon, never received a throne—but this was not through lack of opportunity or invitation. ([Location 860](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=860)) - Of the three girls, one, Caroline, placed herself in line for a future crown as a Queen-consort when she married Joachim Murat, eventually crowned King of Naples in succession to Joseph. The other two, Elisa (whom Napoleon disliked for her bitter tongue) and Pauline (whom he adored), found dukes and generals for husbands. ([Location 864](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=864)) - General de Marboeuf, French governor and military commander of Corsica and a family friend of long standing. Scurrilous gossip has suggested that he was Napoleon’s father, but there is no evidence whatsoever to support this theory. Nevertheless, de Marboeuf undoubtedly played an important part in Napoleon’s early life by being instrumental in gaining him a place at the school at Brienne in France. ([Location 868](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=868)) - This isolation bred two particular qualities in Napoleon—a deep love of books and a fierce patriotic pride in Corsica—and encouraged a third—leadership. ([Location 886](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=886)) - Passing through the final examinations at Brienne, he announced his choice of the artillery as the arm of the service he wished to join. It was a wise decision. Not only would the artillery service suit his mathematical talents; it was also the one part of the services (apart from the engineers) where talent as opposed to wealth and breeding could earn advancement. ([Location 905](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=905)) - Throughout the halcyon days of the Consulate and Empire, and right to the end of his career, Napoleon never lost “the common touch”; he was always able to make himself the idol of the rank and file when he felt so disposed. Part of this knack of man-management was learned in the early months at Valence, as di Buonaparte went through the mill with the rest. ([Location 938](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=938)) - Du Teil was in the habit of taking his officers out into the countryside, dividing them into teams for the defense and the attack of a certain selected village or hill, and then setting them loose to devise individual solutions which were afterward discussed and compared. This practical and theoretical experience in handling tactical situations stood di Buonaparte in good stead and complemented his voracious reading of the works of Guibert and du Teil’s brother and the many more sources of military lore drawn from the well-stocked shelves of the library. During these months he almost certainly devised the first outlines of the strategical and tactical concepts which were to form the basis of the great campaigns and battles of future years.I ([Location 974](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=974)) - On April 1, 1792, he was elected lieutenant colonel of volunteers: no mean promotion for a humble first lieutenant aged only twenty-two! ([Location 1016](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1016)) - A little under two months later he also witnessed the full-scale storming of the Tuileries and ensuing massacre of the Swiss Guard by the mob, and this tragedy increased his contempt for popular violence and weakly led regular troops. ([Location 1031](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1031)) - Quenza spent the whole day of the 25 th busily re-embarking the men, but nobody thought to inform Lieutenant Colonel Buonaparte and his isolated battery of three guns of what was afoot. Accordingly it was only late in the evening that he learned of the proceeding evacuation, by which time most of the expedition was snugly on board ship and on its way back to Corsica. This left Buonaparte in a considerable quandary and no little danger, but with typical grit and determination he compelled his sweating and swearing gunners to manhandle their pieces across the island to the embarkation place. ([Location 1065](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1065)) - Lucien, from the comparative safety of Toulon, saw fit to make a public denunciation of Paoli as a counterrevolutionary in a forthright speech at the Republican Club. This rash statement had two immediate effects. In the first place it forced Paoli to clarify his position vis-à-vis the French connection once and for all, and not surprisingly he came down on the side of Corsican independence. Secondly, it made it impossible for the Buonaparte family to remain living on the island. ([Location 1084](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1084)) - He was to return only once more to the land of his birth, and then not by choice: returning from Egypt in October 1799, he was stormbound for a week in Corsica. ([Location 1095](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1095)) - At the same time he sent off his report on the ports of Corsica to the Convention. This document is of importance for two reasons. Firstly, it stressed the advantage that the French Government could derive from the establishment of a large naval base on the island to command the western Mediterranean. San Fiorenzo, being the nearest port geographically to Toulon, was the suggested site. Although this proposal was never taken up, it demonstrates Buonaparte’s grasp of at least some of the principles of maritime strategy, for Nelson came to exactly the same conclusions a year or two later. Secondly, in a separate paper adjoined to the report, he suggested a scheme for the defense of Ajaccio against enemy attack from the sea. ([Location 1098](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1098)) - Any comparison of the maps of Ajaccio and Toulon will reveal a marked topographical resemblance between the two ports and their harbor arrangements. This fact was to be a feature of no little importance in the unfolding drama before Toulon five months later. ([Location 1108](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1108)) - Then, on the night of August 27–28, Toulon raised the standard of revolt and admitted an Anglo-Spanish fleet. This was a most serious matter for Republican France; Toulon was not only the most important naval arsenal of the country, it was also the key to French control of the Mediterranean, and its loss through treachery represented a most damaging blow to the Republic’s reputation, both at home and abroad. ([Location 1129](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1129)) - Abruptly, on September 16, fate took a hand. Captain Buonaparte, escorting his slow-moving convoy of powder wagons along the road from Marseilles to Nice, dropped off en route to pay his respects to his Corsican friend Saliceti at Beausset. He had earlier ascertained that Carteaux’s headquarters were situated in the village. A few hours later he found himself appointed to command Carteaux’s artillery. Saliceti, no doubt mindful of his compatriot’s sterling services in Corsica and of the valuable impact of Le Souper de Beaucaire, felt certain he had found the right man for the task. And, using the great powers invested in the Députés-en-Mission—which transcended even those of the commander in chief—he nominated Buonaparte to fill Dommartin’s vacancy on the spot. ([Location 1147](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1147)) - the path to victory lay in isolating Toulon from the seaward as well as the landward sides. Carteaux and Lapoype had other ideas, and no doubt they soon became heartily sick of the young “know-it-all” planted in their midst. ([Location 1156](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1156)) - Buonaparte supervised the construction of two batteries—de la Montagne and des Sans-Culottes—on a hillside overlooking the western shores of the Petite Rade. After a short bombardment on September 20, Buonaparte forced Admiral Lord Hood to move his shipping closer to Toulon—in other words, well into the proposed trap. ([Location 1168](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1168)) - All the time Buonaparte was chafing at the delays occasioned by his inefficient superiors and their general lack of purpose and decision. ([Location 1190](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1190)) - The main trouble with the conduct of the siege of Toulon was the profusion of plans. Everybody thought that he alone knew what needed to be done for the best; there was no real direction from the top. ([Location 1200](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1200)) - Thus weeks passed into months, and still Toulon defied the tricolor. At length on November 25 General Dugommier summoned a council of war—at which Buonaparte served as secretary—and it was decided to implement the scheme Buonaparte had always had in mind: namely, a massive bombardment against the defenses of the promontory, followed by a dawn attack against Fort Mulgrave supported by a feint attack against Mount Faron, and lastly, the establishment of a battery on Point l’Eguilette which could rake the British fleet with red-hot shot. ([Location 1224](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1224)) - the Allied garrison conducted a sortie in strength from Fort Malbousquet and virtually destroyed the Battery of the Convention on the extreme left of the line, spiking the seven 24-pounders it contained. Dugommier and Buonaparte in person led up the counterattack, and a hot action ensued which Napoleon later recalled at St. Helena. ([Location 1228](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1228)) - Early that morning, covered by an intense bombardment, 6,000 troops under General Muiron stormed Fort Mulgrave with success (at a cost of 1,000 casualties) while on the northeastern side of Toulon, Brigadier General Massena captured Fort d’Artigues; within a few hours Buonaparte had also made himself master of the smaller fortifications on Point l’Eguilette and the neighboring tower of Balaquier—having a horse killed under him and receiving a bayonet wound in the thigh in the process—and by late afternoon on the 18th a battery often guns was ready to sweep the inner harbor. This was the decisive development of the siege: the “moment of truth” when the equilibrium is broken. Hardly had Buonaparte opened fire on the British Fleet than Lord Hood ordered the evacuation of the Petite Rade. The same evening the British troops blew up the arsenal, clear proof that the siege was almost over. A certain naval post captain, Sir William Sidney-Smith, attempted to destroy the French shipping and stores in the basin, but succeeded only in burning ten vessels due to the insubordination of some Spanish assistants. A few hours later the last British and Allied troops sailed from Toulon, packing onto their crowded transports as many citizens of Toulon as possible. Finally, at 9:00 A.M. on December 19, the Revolutionary forces took possession of Toulon. ([Location 1246](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1246)) - So ended the celebrated siege of Toulon. Although technically he was never more than artillery adviser to a succession of commanders in chief, Major Buonaparte was generally recognized as being the mastermind behind the success. On December 22 the Députés-en-Mission provisionally promoted him to the rank of brigadier general in recognition of his services, and this was subsequently confirmed by the Committee of Public Safety on February 16, 1794. ([Location 1267](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1267)) - Of course the artillery was the true weapon for the task; as he wrote to the Committee in Paris, “It is the artillery that takes places; the infantry can only aid it.” ([Location 1275](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1275)) - instead Buonaparte drew inspiration from the writings of Guibert and Bourcet. ([Location 1319](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1319)) - Nevertheless, it was an encouraging beginning; and many features of future campaigns—the use of diversions, the division of the army into petits pacquets (apparently dispersed but in fact carefully placed within supporting distance of one another) and the use of a centrally placed reserve—spring immediately to mind. ([Location 1336](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1336)) - In other words, a diversionary attack against Piedmont would compel Austria to weaken her forces on the Rhine, and thus create favorable conditions for a decisive French breakthrough on the main front. ([Location 1357](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1357)) - His release was therefore procured by none other than Citizen Saliceti—who with commendable flexibility was now clearly determined to run with the hare as well as hunt with the hounds. ([Location 1375](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1375)) - The Ministry of War, finding itself with an excessive number of artillery brigadier generals on the army list, decided in May 1795 that the youngest and most junior of them must be transferred to command a second-rate infantry brigade engaged on counterinsurgency operations with the Army of the West in the notoriously unsettled region of La Vendée. Nothing could have been further from Buonaparte’s wishes. For one thing he detested the idea of participating once more in squalid civil war; for another, he had no wish to be buried in police work far from the theaters of war where real fame and preferment were to be won. ([Location 1408](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1408)) - In any case, our disgruntled Citizen Buonaparte suddenly found himself reappointed brigadier general of artillery with a semiofficial appointment in the Bureau Topographique at the Ministry of War. ([Location 1425](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1425)) - However, for some considerable time he continued to consider transferring his services to the Turkish army, so disillusioned had he become with the unpredictable vagaries of the French military administration. ([Location 1427](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1427)) - Not for long, however. Paris—that seething center of intrigue backed by mob violence—suddenly irrupted into full revolt once more. The occasion was the publication of the new “Constitution of the Year III,” which placed power in the hands of an executive Directory of Seven and further prolonged the life of the notorious Convention by decreeing that two thirds of its membership should receive automatic transfer into the new Legislative Assembly. The communes and sections of Paris, led by 20,000 National Guardsmen, sprang to arms and prepared to march on the Tuileries Palace where the Convention met for its self-perpetuating deliberations. In great alarm the new government entrusted Paul Barras with the task of protecting the Assembly from mob violence with the 5,000 regular troops available. Barras—who never pretended to be a soldier—sent for ex-Brigadier General Buonaparte. The latter did not hesitate. ([Location 1471](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1471)) - Sending off Captain Murat at full gallop to secure the artillery park at Sablons, Buonaparte massed his guns to command the streets leading to the Tuileries. As the mob surged forward from their headquarters at the Church of St. Roch, the order to fire was given; several salvoes of grapeshot tore into the crowd at point-blank range, killing at least 200 and wounding probably twice as many more. The crowd, stunned by this ruthless action, hesitated, turned and fled. By dusk on October 5 order had been everywhere restored. ([Location 1478](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1478)) - If Toulon founded Napoleon Buonaparte’s military reputation, his energetic if sanguinary support of the government on the 13th Vendémiaire established him politically. Barras and his relieved fellow Directors could not do enough for their “sword” and deliverer. ([Location 1482](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1482)) - The army’s discipline was callous and ferocious. “Curse, hang and flog” summarized the outlook of the British authorities in the early 1790s despite the conscientious efforts of Frederick, Duke of York (King George III’s brother and Commander in Chief) to remedy some of the most glaring evils. ([Location 1528](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1528)) - The British tactical system, although it embodied much that was potentially good, was generally too rigidly and ponderously linear to present a real challenge to the fluid mobility and flexible tactics of the Revolutionary forces. ([Location 1540](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1540)) - The public distrusted their nominal defenders as ex-convicts and wastrels; the rank and file continued to be drawn from the most depressed classes of society; a proportion of the officers came from the rather disillusioned landless “younger son” element of the aristocracy and squirearchy; promotion was tied to favor and purchasing power rather than proven ability. Yet there was gold among the dross. The British soldier was famous for his grim humor and steadfastness in face of danger, but, far more significantly, there was a reform movement of great future consequence beginning to gain momentum, inspired by a group of enlightened officers. Foremost among these stand the figures of Sir John Moore and General Crauford. Both insisted on a more humane approach toward the common soldier, on higher standards among regimental officers, on the use of reward as well as punishment to achieve results, and above all on the need to foster self-dependence and initiative at every level. ([Location 1545](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1545)) - Behind all these progressing improvements stands the figure of “the Grand Old Duke of York,” who more than made up for his limitations as a commander in the field by his skill and farsightedness as an administrator. His support and encouragement, to cite a single example, enabled Colonel le Marchant to found the officer-training establishment that eventually became the Royal Military College Sandhurst,II a step destined in time to improve the professional competence of the British officer corps in the infantry and cavalry arms. ([Location 1556](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1556)) - The Hapsburg armies were inevitably multinational in composition, containing Serbs and Croats as well as Austrians and Hungarians. The language problems so caused were never fully overcome, for the Austrian forces could not boast an efficient staff system that might have tackled these difficulties. ([Location 1577](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1577)) - Austrian generals failed to make the most effective use of their well-trained and superbly mounted cavalry, while Hapsburg artillery units were commonly positioned with little care. ([Location 1585](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1585)) - French armies on the march were famed for one particular characteristic besides pillage, rape and arson: their speed of movement. ([Location 1589](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1589)) - Through necessity, the French lived off the countryside for the most part, “making war pay for war,” but this at least freed them from the encumbrance of slow-moving supply convoys and a strategy based on the existence of prestocked arsenals and depots. They never carried more than three days’ supplies. The Austrians, on the other hand, habitually marched with nine days’ full rations in wagons. ([Location 1591](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1591)) - Only the young Archduke Charles showed true potential, but even he had the distressing habit of slipping into epileptic trances at moments of crisis. ([Location 1599](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1599)) - Spain, of course, had already left the Coalition in 1795, but we might mention here that her army was proud but poorly led and hopelessly equipped. The same description—less the pride—equally suits the soldiers of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily). Even their monarch and titular commander-in-chief had few illusions about the prowess of his men in action. When it was suggested that a change of uniform might help inspire a few martial virtues in his men he realistically replied, “Dress them in red, blue or green—they’ll run away just the same.” ([Location 1601](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1601)) - Moreover, the general “aggressiveness” of Carnot’s plan was not wholly dictated by considerations of “offensive action”; the finances of the Republic were by this time in so parlous a state that it was economically vital that “war should be made to pay for war,” at least to the extent of moving France’s armies off their native soil for subsistence; the Treasury’s coffers could make good use of any hard cash or booty acquirable by deliberate and wholesale looting of conquered or “liberated” areas. Besides these blatantly materialistic motives, there was also an idealistic element behind the scheme. In pursuit of the Revolutionary principle of fraternité Carnot and his fellow Directors felt an insistent urge to spread their gospel to an “enslaved and reactionary” Europe. Moreover, if the excitements of foreign conquest could help to distract popular attention and discontent from the patent miseries of life within France itself, so much the better. ([Location 1624](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1624)) - SOLDIERS! You are hungry and naked; the government owes you much but can give you nothing. The patience and courage which you have displayed among these rocks are admirable; but they bring you no glory—not a glimmer falls upon you. I will lead you into the most fertile plains on earth. Rich provinces, opulent towns, all shall be at your disposal; there you will find honour, glory and riches. Soldiers of Italy! Will you be lacking in courage or endurance?” ([Location 1664](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1664)) - For their meager rations they were dependent on the whim of fraudulent army contractors, who were amassing private fortunes at the expense of the soldiers they were cheating, and the exhausted hillsides of Piedmont offered little compensation to the hordes of foragers, officers and men alike, who quitted their units every day in search of food. ([Location 1677](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1677)) - Through Berthier, his chief of staff, he had immediately summoned the three senior divisional commanders to headquarters to receive his orders for the forthcoming campaign. ([Location 1693](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1693)) - At the age of fifty-three, Sérurier was the oldest—a tall, gloomy man with a scar on his lip—who had seen thirty-four years service in the old Royal Army before the Revolution and was really a soldier of the ancien régime in both his experience and outlook. He was a methodical worker and severe disciplinarian, somewhat out of place in this citizen army, and had few claims to military distinction; an air of aristocratic nostalgia lingered around this ci-devant nobleman. ([Location 1695](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1695)) - General Augereau was a product of the Paris gutters, and his thirty-eight years had been packed with colorful adventures. The son of a poor stonemason, he had enlisted in the ranks of the Royal cavalry, but after killing an officer who insulted him he hastily fled to Switzerland and thence transferred to the Russian army, where he rose to the rank of sergeant fighting against the Turks. A few years later found him enlisted in Frederick the Great’s famous Guards, but dissatisfied with the terms of service he once more deserted, and for a time earned his living as a fencing master in Dresden. A series of adventures—both military and amorous—in Greece, Italy and Portugal were eventually terminated by his return to France in 1792, and within a year he had risen to the rank of divisional general. Contemporaries described him as a buffoon, bully and bonhomme, but he was also an able tactician and thorough soldier, popular with the men. He had few social graces, speaking the coarse language of the Paris gamin to the end of his life, but his towering height and huge hooked nose made him an imposing figure. A ceaseless grumbler, he nevertheless had as keen an eye for the weak spot in an enemy’s formation as for booty. ([Location 1699](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1699)) - André Massena, almost thirty-eight years old—was already known to the general; they had served together at Toulon and in the campaign of 1794. Born in Nice, he started life as a cabin boy, but eventually joined the army where he rapidly rose to the rank of sergeant major before applying for an honorable discharge in 1789. For the next three years—according to a rather dubious source—he is reputed to have lived the life of a smuggler, moving contraband through the hills of Savoy into Italy and learning the country like the back of his hand—experience, if true, that would stand him in good stead in the years to come. In 1792 he resumed his military career in the Revolutionary Army, and by 1795 he was the senior divisional commander of the Army of Italy, the famous victor of the battle of Loano. A dark, thin, taciturn man, with a boundless taste for money and women, Massena was in due time to prove one of the ablest of Napoleon’s leaders, and was already a soldier of vast practical experience. ([Location 1707](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1707)) - Alexandre Berthier, a 42-year-old engineer officer with an extraordinary aptitude for staff work. The previous year he had headed General Kellermann’s staff in the Army of the Alps, and was fully conversant with the problems of mountain campaigning. Although in manner frequently brusque and harsh and in appearance most unprepossessing—his head was huge and out of proportion to his small stature—uncouth in manners, persistently biting his nails, clumsy in his movements, Berthier’s capacity for assembling detail and his ability to work twenty hours a day were phenomenal. Bonaparte owed much of his early success to the administrative talents of Berthier, his eminence grise—but those who thought that the chief of staff would serve as a “dry nurse” to the young general were to be rapidly disillusioned. ([Location 1728](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1728)) - The lively Gascon cavalryman, Joachim Murat, who with superb nerve had suggested his own appointment, was serving as a colonel aide-de-camp. Murat made up with his dash and personal courage for certain deficiencies of imagination and intellect. ([Location 1735](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1735)) - Major Junot, aged twenty-four, who had served as a sergeant at Toulon and followed Bonaparte to Paris in the lean year that followed, ([Location 1737](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1737)) - Marmont, just twenty-two, a close personal friend of several years’ standing, a fellow gunner. ([Location 1738](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1738)) - The key to the military domination of the North Italian plain lay in the control of the area of land enclosed within the “Quadrilateral.” ([Location 1785](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1785)) - Apart from Austrian-occupied Lombardy, three states stood out above the rest in importance; the Kingdom of Sardinia (which included Piedmont and Savoy), the Papal States, controlling the central regions of Italy, and the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. ([Location 1787](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1787)) - Discounting these last two forces, which virtually canceled each other out, the 37,000-strong French Army of Italy faced a total of 52,000 Austrians and Piedmontese. ([Location 1806](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1806)) - General La Harpe mounted a frontal attack on the position while Massena, at the head of Menard’s brigade, worked round the Austrian right flank. In due course Argenteau realized his peril and ordered his men to retreat, but it was too late; Massena’s troops charged and routed the Austrian lines, and by dawn the next day Argenteau had only 700 men under direct command, leaving him with no option but to fall back to reorganize his scattered men. ([Location 1867](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1867)) - The successful conclusion of Bonaparte’s first battle as commander in chief provides a convenient juncture for an outline of the tactics currently employed by the Revolutionary Armies. By 1796 these had become fairly stereotyped and effective, but to appreciate them fully it is necessary to glance back at the chaotic early days of the War of the First Coalition when crude volunteer and fédéré armies—with a stiffening of regular troops inherited from the ancien régime—faced the military might of the European monarchies. From the confusion of the earlier engagements there slowly developed a system of battlefield methods which, in the fullness of time, would underlie the military achievements of Europe’s greatest soldier. ([Location 1871](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1871)) - The first volunteer formations that attempted to follow the printed word found the tactical subtleties wholly beyond the capacities of their training and experience. The evolutions needed to bring a column of troops into line ready for fire action were necessarily complex—as were the maneuvers required when the line was subsequently ordered to advance or retire under fire. The predictable result was complete chaos followed by, as often as not, a mass flight to the rear out of range of howling shot and whistling musket balls. The early revolutionary armies possessed neither the discipline nor the training required to carry out drill evolutions with clockwork precision within eighty yards of the enemy. ([Location 1881](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1881)) - After a series of heavy reverses in 1792, the French military pundits gradually came to recognize the limitations of their military material and advised the adoption of what may be termed “horde tactics.” It now became the invariable practice to send the most reliable men forward in a cloud of skirmishers (whose nuisance value had been learned by General Lafayette and his French volunteers during the War of American Independence), while behind the screen thus formed the less-trusted mass of the battalions huddled together making up their minds whether to fight or flee. Then, after the cannon and skirmishers had wrought their preliminary havoc upon the enemy lines, all being well, the French columns would surge forward in a series of wild rushes, brandishing swords and bayonets, and on many occasions the astounded enemy would retire discomfited. ([Location 1889](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1889)) - The action was opened by a cloud of sharpshooters, some mounted, some on foot, who were sent forward to carry out a general rather than a minutely-regulated mission; they proceeded to harass the enemy, escaping from his superior numbers by their mobility, from the effect of his cannon by their dispersal. They were constantly relieved to ensure that the fire did not slacken, and they also received considerable reinforcement to increase their over-all effect. It was rare for an army to have placed its flanks in impregnable positions; in any case every position presents natural or contrived loopholes which favour an attacker. On such points the sharpshooters would concentrate their efforts, and élan and inspiration were rarely lacking at such times amongst such troops. Once the chink in the foe’s armour had been revealed, it became the focal point for the main effort. The horse artillery would gallop up and open fire with canister at close range. The attacking force would meantime be moving up in the indicated direction, the infantry advancing in column (for it had little fire to offer), the cavalry in regiments or squadrons, ready to make its presence felt anywhere or everywhere as required. Then, when the hail of enemy bullets or cannon balls began to slacken, an officer, common soldier, or, as often as not, a Representative of the People, would start to chant the “Hymn of Victory.” The general would place his hat with its… ([Location 1896](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1896)) - It called for comparatively little precision on the part of the rank and file, made the utmost use of the drive and ardor of the citizen-soldiery, and often overwhelmed their better drilled but less-inspired opponents by sheer brute force. The armies of eighteenth-century Europe—soaked in the intricacies and formalities of Frederickan warfare—were… ([Location 1910](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1910)) - With the passage of time, however, the tough French armies became more experienced, and it became feasible to return to more subtle tactics combining infantry fire… ([Location 1913](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1913)) - It was found, for instance, that the skirmishers and cannon fire did not always cause sufficient casualties to shake the enemy’s cohesion—and that a heavier volume of musketry fire was required. Perhaps the best solution to this problem was the adoption of l’ordre… ([Location 1915](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1915)) - The French cavalry of this period was generally abysmal. This arm suffered most from the exodus of officers. The considerable length of time required to train a good cavalryman was lacking, and shortage of horses also affected its capabilities. ([Location 1928](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1928)) - By contrast, the artillery of the Revolutionary Armies suffered least of all from the emigration of officers, for many of its leaders were drawn from middle-class rather than aristocratic families. ([Location 1936](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=1936)) - In a ten-day campaign, General Bonaparte had brought the state of Piedmont to its knees and thus secured, for the time being at least, the flank and rear of the Army of Italy which could now turn to smite its principal opponent—the Austrian army in the Po valley. ([Location 2040](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2040)) - In this eventuality the Army of Italy’s communications might again be dangerously exposed, but Bonaparte’s shrewd appraisal of his masters’ foibles and weaknesses convinced him that they would accept the situation with a good grace. He had brought victory to French arms, and no politician would dare to throw away his achievement; besides, the general had been prudent enough to send the Directors material proof in the form of booty, and his fellow Corsican, Saliceti, the senior representative of the French Government accompanying the army in the field, had long ago thrown in his lot with his young general and could be relied upon to report back favorably. ([Location 2043](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2043)) - By sheer determination and offensive action, by repeated concentrations of force at critical places and times, by cunning economy, tight security and brilliant control of every move made by each component of his army, Napoleon Bonaparte had accomplished his preliminary task. At a cost of 6,000 casualties he had burst into the Po valley, taking the protecting Alps by the flank. “Annibal a forcé les Alpes” he exclaimed, “nous, nous les avons tournés!” In the process he had run enormous risks, and minor setbacks such as those at Cosseria and Dego might well have presaged disaster had his opponent been a soldier of greater determination and audacity. General Schérer’s earlier unwillingness to launch an offensive can more easily be understood in the light of the perils his more brilliant successor was called upon to meet, but an inflexible will and complete understanding of the problems of time and space had overcome every obstacle. A flamboyant manifesto summarized the achievement: “Soldiers! In fifteen days you have gained six victories, taken 21 colors and 55 pieces of artillery, seized several fortresses and conquered the richest parts of Piedmont. You have captured 15,000 prisoners and killed and wounded more than 10,000. . . .”6 The promises of March 27 had been fulfilled indeed; this, however, was only the beginning. ([Location 2048](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2048)) - The problem was now to devise a means of crossing the Po in the face of Beaulieu’s army and thereafter force him to fight a battle. The difficulties of a river crossing were increased by the absence of a proper bridging train in the French army, but the Austrian commander in chief’s decision to station his army around the town of Valeggio on Piedmontese soil instead of retiring to the far stronger position offered by the River Ticino farther to the east was a considerable if short-lived advantage. ([Location 2079](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2079)) - The essence of Bonaparte’s plan was to distract Beaulieu’s attention for the vital period it would take a select force to make the march to Piacenza and establish a bridgehead on the north bank of the Po. The first duty was entrusted to Massena and Sérurier, who were to mount diversionary operations appearing to presage a major crossing at Valenza; the second task was given to a special corps d’élite drawn from the grenadier units of the whole army and led by General Dallemagne. Four battalions of this force were entrusted to the dashing Colonel Lannes, and in all, Dallemagne’s command totaled 3,600 grenadiers and 2,500 cavalry. He was to be supported in the first instance by the divisions of La Harpe and Augereau, who were to follow hard on his heels, and in due course the remainder of the army would similarly march eastwards. ([Location 2095](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2095)) - During the night, however, the head of Beaulieu’s converging columns came into violent conflict with the French troops at Codogno, and in the general confusion of a night action La Harpe was tragically shot by his own men. Deprived of firm leadership, the French troops began to waver, but the situation was saved by the chief of staff, Berthier, who rode forward with other senior officers to take personal control of the battle. In due course the Austrians pulled back, leaving one cannon and sixty prisoners in French hands. ([Location 2117](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2117)) - This river crossing in the proximity of a large enemy army has deservedly become regarded as a classic operation of war, its success being based on precise planning, careful deception and, above all, speed of marching. Bonaparte was not, however, completely satisfied with his achievement. Beaulieu had managed to escape the net before his lines of communication had been severed, and although the fall of Milan was now a certainty, the enemy army had still to be defeated before he could be reinforced if the remainder of the Po valley, and above all the city and fortress of Mantua, were to pass into French hands. ([Location 2124](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2124)) - In sober fact, of course, the result was another disappointment for Bonaparte, for once again Beaulieu had evaded his clutches and made good his escape, but the spirit and courage shown by the officers and men of the Army of Italy during this bitter struggle have earned “The Bridge of Lodi” a special place in the mystique of the French army. It was at Lodi that Bonaparte finally earned the confidence and loyalty of his men, who nicknamed him thereafter “Le Petit Caporal” in recognition of his personal courage, determination and example. The event was also significant in crystallizing Napoleon’s ambition. “It was only on the evening of Lodi,” he recorded a long time later, “that I believed myself a superior man, and that the ambition came to me of executing the great things which so far had been occupying my thoughts only as a fantastic dream.”9 On another occasion, at St. Helena, he wrote: “Then was struck the first spark of high ambition,” and a few days after the Battle of Lodi he confided to Marmont, “They [the Directory] have seen nothing yet. . . . In our days no one has conceived anything great; it is for me to set the example.”10 ([Location 2149](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2149)) - I believe that one bad general is better than two good ones. ([Location 2165](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2165)) - However, before his men could come to grips with Beaulieu, disturbing tidings reached headquarters from both Milan and Pavia. Emboldened by the departure of the main French army, the citizens of both towns had revolted, and the French garrison of Pavia had actually surrendered the citadel. Within two days Bonaparte was back in Milan at the head of 1,500 picked troops under Lannes, Marmont and Murat, but there he found General Despinois in firm control of the local situation. Pressing on to Pavia, the troops stormed the gates and were permitted to sack the town without restraint for several hours. Many innocent townsfolk died in the process, but Bonaparte was determined to teach the whole of North Italy a lesson it would not forget in a hurry. At the same time, he ordered the execution of the hapless French officer who had surrendered the citadel. In similar vein, Lannes meted out rough justice to the village of Binasco, burning the houses and shooting all the men. ([Location 2196](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2196)) - However, the period was not without its excitements; at one moment on 1st June, Bonaparte was almost captured by the scouts of Sebettondorf’s division who surprised him in the village of Vallegio;I the general had to escape over several garden walls wearing only one boot before he found safety. This experience persuaded Bonaparte to strengthen his personal escort, and led to the formation of the Guides, a special unit of veterans whose chief duty was to protect the person of the commander in chief; in due course this escort, at first a couple of hundred strong commanded by Captain Bessières, was to form the nucleus for the famous Régiment des Chasseurs-à-Cheval of the Imperial Guard. ([Location 2214](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2214)) - The Austrian army had not yet been forced to fight a major battle, and for all Bonaparte’s determination and skill Beaulieu had only lost a series of comparatively minor rear-guard actions. As the historian Adlow described the position: “Beaulieu was not driven out of Lombardy; it would be more appropriate to say that he was frightened out.” ([Location 2227](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2227)) - In the months that followed, the Army of Italy was to find it difficult to maintain control over the conquered area and at the same time to cover the siege of Mantua as one Austrian army after another made repeated efforts to break through to relieve the garrison. General Bonaparte’s qualities in an offensive capacity had been adequately proved; now his ability to sustain a strategic defensive against superior enemy forces was to be severely tested. ([Location 2237](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2237)) - Two months of active campaigning had done little to improve the outward appearance of the Army of Italy. An Italian priest wrote an interesting description of the troops’ appearance shortly after the capture of Pavia: “The clothes of officers and men are torn and threadbare. . . . They have neither tents nor baggage. They have no proper uniform; some wear pantaloons, others breeches; these wear boots, those shoes; you see some with waistcoats, or wearing the first clothes they have got hold of. The coat is blue with a red collar. . . . As head dress I have seen some with a hat, but most have a leather casque with an aigrette in soft skin, or a horsetail.” ([Location 2243](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2243)) - Bonaparte in person led a force back to Tortona, and Lannes marched on Pozzolo and Arquarta, leaving desolation in their wake to serve as a reminder of the folly of revolting against the French Republic. Genoa, believed to be implicated in these risings, received a stern visit from Murat, who forced the Senate to dismiss the governor of Gavi and expel certain Neapolitan functionaries suspected of conspiring against French interests. ([Location 2254](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2254)) - The raids to the south successfully accomplished, the French forces reconcentrated around Mantua, where they were soon joined by Bonaparte and the siege artillery. As intelligence reports were now giving definite indications of an impending Austrian offensive from the Tyrol, the French commander attempted to take Mantua by another assault on July 17. But this miscarried owing to a sudden drop in the water levels, which stranded Murat with one of the vital assaulting parties halfway over the lower lake. ([Location 2275](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2275)) - On July 29 he instructed Sérurier, left in charge of the siege, to prepare for a retreat to the north, and on the 31st the order became operative. A total of 179 guns had to be abandoned; several were buried and a few were spiked, but the majority fell into Austrian hands. In this fashion the first siege of Mantua came to an unfortunate end with the loss of the laboriously gathered siege train. The abandonment of the siege was a hard decision for Bonaparte, but if he was to beat off the impending Austrian onslaught not a man of the Army of Italy could be spared. ([Location 2281](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2281)) - Graham describes one incident when a number of French prisoners of war were systematically deprived of the clothes they stood up in; one officer “was positively stripped to the skin, and came up to the headquarters to complain without any covering whatever but a tattered greatcoat that some of the Austrian soldiers had given him to cover his nakedness.” ([Location 2292](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2292)) - Consequently Bonaparte was given just sufficient time to make the greatest possible use of his central position and narrowly defeat each wing of the Austrian army in turn. After a series of preliminary operations he turned his main attention against Quasdanovitch’s 18,000 on August 3. There followed the so-called Battle of First Lonato which was, in fact, a series of bitterly contested actions in which Massena fought off Quasdanovitch while Augereau covered himself with glory against Würmser’s advance guard near Castiglione. ([Location 2311](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2311)) - Consequently, when Würmser at last attempted to march to the support of his subordinate on the 3rd, he found Augereau across his path, and, although the Austrians fought extremely fiercely, as Graham testifies, their advance was halted. In later years Napoleon never forgot Augereau’s behavior on this occasion; the Emperor would round on the marshal’s many detractors and exclaim: “Ah! but remember what he did for us at Castiglione.”19 The passage of time also convinced Augereau that he was the savior of the whole campaign. Always a braggart, he recorded a fanciful tale in 1814 of how he, alone of all the generals, braced his young commander’s shaken nerve, and persuaded him to fight it out at Lonato and Castiglione when everybody else wished to retreat south of the Po. This was a gross exaggeration of the part he played, but there is no doubt that his staunch fight heartened the army and gave Bonaparte time to repulse the westernmost Austrian column. ([Location 2317](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2317)) - Quasdanovitch safely repulsed with the loss of a complete division, Bonaparte could turn all his attention against Würmser. A classic Napoleonic battle followed. After much marching, Massena was brought up on Augereau’s left, and Sérurier’s troops were directed to advance from Marcaria (where they had already fought off an attempt by 4,000 men from Mantua to join Würmser’s main body), and fall on the left flank and rear of the enemy. Würmser, meanwhile, halted his troops to wait for Quasdanovitch to join him. So it was that on August 5 the three French divisions (totaling 30,000 men) fell on Würmser’s static army, 25,000 strong, at Castiglione. Attacked frontally by Massena’s and Augereau’s troops, and finding Sérurier advancing on his left rear, the Austrian general was compelled to retreat to the east toward Valeggio, but the French were too exhausted to pursue effectively.I ([Location 2324](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2324)) - A few days later Mantua was again under French blockade. Thus Bonaparte staved off a series of crises and repulsed the first Austrian attempt to recapture the Lombard Plain. The effort had cost the French at least 6,000 killed and wounded besides the loss of 4,000 prisoners, but the Austrians suffered as many as 16,700 casualties over the same period. ([Location 2338](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2338)) - Hard fighting and harder marching—Augereau’s division for instance covered 50 miles in 36 hours at the height of the crisis, and Bonaparte is reputed to have ridden five horses to death in three days—enabled the Army of Italy to ward off disaster, but the closeness of the affair revealed serious weaknesses in the French defensive arrangements besides involving the abandonment of the siege of Mantua and the loss of the siege train. Nevertheless, the true measure of Bonaparte’s ability as a general is shown by the fact that he managed to concentrate a superior force against each enemy wing in turn. The Napoleonic method of campaign and battle was rapidly evolving. ([Location 2342](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2342)) - This was an extremely risky course to pursue, for during the operation the Army of Italy would be wholly dependent on what supplies it could seize locally, and even a temporary check on the Brenta might lead to starvation in the midst of the Alps. On the other hand, Bonaparte calculated that Würmser would never dare to advance on the Adige and Mantua if the main French army severed his communications with Trieste. This would compel the Austrians either to fight a major battle or retire to the Adriatic, and in either eventuality the siege of Mantua would be able to continue without interruption. ([Location 2379](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2379)) - On September 6, the pursuit began. The following day, Augereau’s division stormed the defile of Primolano in the face of a complete Austrian division, and by nightfall, the Army of Italy had reached Cismona, after covering almost sixty miles in two days. Würmser was not unnaturally dumbfounded by this phenomenal rate of advance by a hungry and determined enemy in his rear, so completely unexpected, and consequently ordered two divisions of his force to halt at Bassano and face about to fight a delaying action against the French as they debouched out of the Alpine passes, and at the same time recalled Meszaros’ division, which had been sent ahead to seize Verona. In this way, Bonaparte was offered the opportunity of a battle far from Mantua; the gamble of his bold manoeuvre sur les derrières appeared to have paid off. ([Location 2384](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2384)) - Thus ended Count Würmser’s second attempt to relieve Mantua. Although he had managed to elude Bonaparte’s clutches after the disaster of Bassano, the old warrior was at last safely caged. His arrival in Mantua was to prove a very mixed blessing for the garrison in the following months. The new mouths rapidly depleted the dwindling food supplies, and within a short period of time the whole garrison was living off horse flesh, while as many as 150 men a day were dying of disease and malnutrition by the New Year. ([Location 2406](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2406)) - Consequently, Bonaparte had reason for satisfaction with the general trend of events. Although he had been compelled to abandon the attempted union with Moreau, whose retreat from the Danube commenced on September 19, and had failed to destroy Würmser after Bassano, the record of French successes remained imposing enough. The way in which Bonaparte had reacted to an unanticipated major move on the part of the enemy reveals his flexibility of mind, while the fine quality of his army was proved yet again by the sustained marches on short rations which played so large a part in the conduct of the campaign. In his zeal to relieve Mantua, the Austrian commander in chief had ended up by incarcerating himself within its walls, and the third full siege of the great fortress was about to begin. ([Location 2414](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B002YPOS4S&location=2414))